| Type | URL | parent URL | label | aliases | description |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| realm | atmospheric realm | gaseous medium and its suspended particulate liquids and solids above the terrestrial realm, extending to the altitudinal limits of life | |||
| realm | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M | marine realm | all connected saline ocean waters characterized by waves, tides and currents | ||
| biome | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M1 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M | marine shelf biome | distributed globally between the shoreline and deep sea-floor biomes and is dominated by benthic productivity | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M1.1 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M1 | seagrass meadows | shallow, subtidal systems are the only marine ecosystems with an abundance of flowering plants; typically found mostly on soft, sandy or muddy substrates around relatively sheltered coastlines | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M1.2 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M1 | kelp forests | kelps (large, brown macroalgae up to 30m in length) form the basis of these highly productive systems found on shallow, subtidal rocky reefs around cold temperate and polar coastlines | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M1.3 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M1 | photic coral reefs | slow growing biogenic structures are formed by the calcium carbonate skeletons of certain coral species that depend on symbiotic relationships with algae | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M1.4 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M1 | shellfish beds and reefs | productive intertidal or subtidal biogenic ecosystems are formed and dominated by sessile molluscs like mussels or oysters, around temperate or tropical coasts and estuaries globally | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M1.5 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M1 | photo-limited marine animal forests | subtidal biogenic ecosystems, formed by either a single species or a community of sessile filter feeders such as sponges, ascidians or aphotic corals, are found mostly on hard substrates | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M1.6 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M1 | subtidal rocky reefs | complex habitat structure derived from irregular rock forms, rather than biogenic features, supporting a diverse epibenthic fauna, with a range of mobile benthic animals and sessile organisms | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M1.7 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M1 | subtidal sand beds | elatively unstable shelf ecosystems in turbulent waters support moderately diverse communities made up largely of consumers, like invertebrate detritivores and filter-feeders, including burrowing polychaetes, crustaceans, echinoderms, and molluscs | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M1.8 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M1 | subtidal mud plains | low energy, muddy ocean shelf ecosystems are moderately productive and typically dominated by microalgal and bacterial primary producers, microbial decomposers, and larger deposit feeders like burrowing polychaete worms and molluscs | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M1.9 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M1 | upwelling zones | productive regions are often associated with eastern-boundary current systems on the transition between marine shelves and the open ocean, forming where divergence of surface water causes upwelling of cold, nutrient-rich water | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M1.10 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M1 | rhodolith/maërl beds | slow growing biogenic structures are formed by long-lived coralline algae that absorb a wide spectrum of light, provide energy to the system and contribute to nutrient cycles | |
| biome | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M2 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M | pelagic ocean waters biome | largest biome on earth, comprising the open-ocean water column across all latitudes | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M2.1 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M2 | epipelagic ocean waters | uppermost ocean layer (0-200m depth) most influenced by the atmosphere, and is defined and structured by light availability | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M2.2 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M2 | mesopelagic ocean water | very low light ""twilight zone"" (~200-1000m depth) divides the surface epipelagic waters from the deep ocean | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M2.3 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M2 | bathypelagic ocean waters | deep (~1000-3000m depth), open-ocean ecosystems receive no sunlight and rely on detritus from upper layers for nutrients | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M2.4 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M2 | abyssopelagic ocean waters | greater depths (~3,000-6,000m) than bathypelagic systems, these very deep open ocean ecosystems receive no light and rely solely on debris from upper layers for nutrients | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M2.5 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M2 | sea ice | seasonally frozen surface waters in polar oceans are one of the most dynamic ecosystems on earth | |
| biome | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M3 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M | deep sea floors biome | covers the entire oceanic benthos below ~250 m depth, where there is not enough light to support primary productivity through photosynthesis | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M3.1 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M3 | continental and island slopes | lightless slopes of sand, mud and rocky outrops run down from the shallower shelf break to the very deep abyssal basins | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M3.2 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M3 | submarine canyons | submarine canyons house some of the most productive and diverse deep sea ecosystems | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M3.3 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M3 | abyssal plains | ecosystems on the very deep seafloors (3000-6000m) of all oceans support a low biomass but high diversity of small invertebrates and microbes, along with larger crustaceans, demersal fish and echinoderms like starfish | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M3.4 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M3 | seamounts, ridges and plateaus | deep, lightless ecosystems are centred on major geomorphic features of deep ocean floors | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M3.5 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M3 | deepwater biogenic beds | relatively complex three-dimensional structures are formed by slow-growing, filter-feeders like sponges, corals and bivalves | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M3.6 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M3 | hadal trenches and troughs | deepest ocean trenches, up to 11 km beneath the surface, are the least explored marine ecosystems | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M3.7 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M3 | chemosynthetic-based-ecosystems | CBE | very deep, high pressure ecosystems, primary productivity is fuelled by chemical compounds as energy sources instead of light (chemoautotrophy) |
| biome | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M4 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M | anthropogenic marine biome | humans have constructed, deposited, or dumped artificial structures in the oceans that either confine managed marine organisms or attract marine biota that would not otherwise occupy such locations | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M4.1 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M4 | submerged artificial structures | submerged structures, including rubble piles, ship wrecks, oil and gas infrastructure and artificial reefs provide vertically oriented hard substrates for marine organisms in coastal waters worldwide | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M4.2 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M4 | marine aquafarms | high-productivity marine aquafarms are enclosed areas for the breeding, rearing, and harvesting of marine plants and animals, including finfish like salmon, molluscs, crustaceans, and algae | |
| realm | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F | freshwater realm | all permanent and temporary freshwater bodies as well as saline water bodies that are not directly connected to the oceans, and are characterized by water regimes defined by frequency, duration, flow velocity, depth and extent of inundation | ||
| biome | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F1 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F | rivers and streams biome | include running water ecosystems, flowing from elevated uplands or underground springs to deltas, estuaries, and lakes; defined primarily by their linear structure, unidirectional flow regimes, and close interaction with the surrounding landscape | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F1.1 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F1 | permanent upland streams | small rivers or streams in mountainous or hilly areas are characterised by steep gradients and fast flow | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F1.2 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F1 | permanent lowland rivers | rivers with slow continuous flows up to 10,000m3/s are common at low elevations throughout tropical and temperate parts of the world | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F1.3 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F1 | freeze-thaw rivers and streams | streams and large rivers at high latitudes or altitudes where surface water freezes in winter | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F1.4 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F1 | seasonal upland streams | seasonal rainfall patterns in large parts of the tropics and temperate regions generate flows that are hugely variable in narrow and steep upland stream | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F1.5 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F1 | seasonal lowland rivers | medium to large rivers in tropical, subtropical and temperate lowlands have markedly seasonal flows due to seasonal water supply in the catchments | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F1.6 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F1 | episodic arid rivers | dry most of the time, but punctuated by high-volume, short duration flows that transport nutrients and stimulate high productivity by algae and zooplankton | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F1.7 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F1 | large lowland rivers | very large rivers transport massive volumes of freshwater (>10,000m3/s) through flat lowlands, mostly in tropical or subtropical regions | |
| biome | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F2 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F | lakes biome | includes lentic ecosystems defined by their still waters, varying in area, depth, water regime, and connectivity to other aquatic systems across a global distribution | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F2.1 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F2 | large permanent freshwater lakes | Large permanent freshwater lakes, generally exceeding 100 km2, are prominent landscape features connected to one or more rivers either terminally or as flow-through systems | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F2.2 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F2 | small permanent freshwater lakes | With a surface area of up to 100 km2, the diversity of small permanent lakes, ponds and pools depends on their size, depth and connectivity | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F2.3 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F2 | seasonal freshwater lakes | Small seasonal lakes, pools and rock holes have plants and animals specialised to seasonally changing wet and dry conditions in temperate and wet-dry tropical regions | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F2.4 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F2 | freeze-thaw freshwater lakes | freshwater lakes vary enormously in size and distribution, providing a wide range of habitats for many organisms, which undergo a succession of emergence during lake thaw | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F2.5 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F2 | ephemeral freshwater lakes | shallow lakes that are mostly dry, and then fill for weeks or months, before drying again | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F2.6 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F2 | permanent salt and soda lakes | lakes that are usually large and shallow in semi-arid regions, with high concentrations of salts, mediated by inflows of water | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F2.7 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F2 | ephemeral salt lakes | Ephemeral salt lakes in semi-arid and arid regions are shallow, with extreme variation in salinity during wet-dry cycles that limits life to a low diversity of specialised salt-tolerant species | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F2.8 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F2 | artesian springs and oases | Surface waterbodies fed by (often warm) groundwaters rising to the surface are scattered in dry landscapes of Africa, the Middle East, Eurasia, North America and Australia, but also occur in humid landscapes | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F2.9 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F2 | geothermal pools and wetlands | Geothermal pools and associated wetlands are fed by deeply circulating groundwater that mixes with magma and hot rocks in volcanically active regions | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F2.10 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F2 | subglacial lakes | These hidden lakes exist beneath permanent ice sheets, sometimes tens to thousands of metres below, mostly in Antarctica and Greenland | |
| biome | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F3 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F | artificial wetlands biome | includes built structures that hold or transfer water for human use, treatment, or disposal | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F3.1 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F3 | large reservoirs | Rivers are impounded by the construction of dam walls, creating large freshwater reservoirs, mostly 15–250 m deep | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F3.2 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F3 | constructed lacustrine wetlands | shallow, open water bodies created for various purposes such as agriculture, mining, stormwater management, and wastewater treatment. | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F3.3 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F3 | rice paddies | artificial wetlands, primarily in tropical to warm temperate climates, filled by rainfall or river water supporting rice cultivation and with simple food webs adapted to seasonal flooding and drying cycles | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F3.4 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F3 | freshwater aquafarms | Artificial ponds or cages in freshwater bodies, primarily in Asia, used for commercial fish and crustacean production; involve intensive management of water, nutrients, and species, resulting in low habitat diversity and primary production | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F3.5 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F3 | canals, ditches and drains | transport freshwater to and from urban and rural areas, particularly in temperate and subtropical regions, associated with cities and agriculture | |
| realm | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T | terrestrial realm | all dry land, its vegetation cover, proximate atmosphere and substrate (soils, rocks) to the rooting depth of plants, and associated animals and microbes | ||
| biome | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/biomes/T1 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T | tropical-subtropical forests biome | includes moderate to highly productive ecosystems with closed tree canopies occurring at lower latitudes north and south of the equator; fragmented occurrences extend to the subtropics in suitable mesoclimates | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/biomes/T1.1 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/biomes/T1 | tropical/subtropical lowland rainforests | closed-canopy forests are renowned for their complex structure and high primary productivity, which support high functional and taxonomic diversity | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/biomes/T1.2 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/biomes/T1 | tropical/subtropical dry forests and thickets | closed-canopy forests and thickets have drought-deciduous or semi-deciduous phenology in at least some woody plants (rarely fully evergreen) | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/biomes/T1.3 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/biomes/T1 | tropical/subtropical montane rainforests | closed-canopy evergreen forests on tropical mountains usually have a single-layer low tree canopy (~5–20m tall) with small leaf sizes (microphyll-notophyll) | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/biomes/T1.4 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/biomes/T1 | tropical heath forests | structurally simple evergreen forests with high densities of thin stems, closed to open uniform canopies, typically 5–20 m tall and uniform | |
| biome | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T2 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T | temperate-boreal forests and woodlands biome | includes moderate to highly productive tree-dominated systems with a wide range of physiognomic and structural expressions distributed from warm-temperate to boreal latitudes | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T2.1 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T2 | boreal and temperate high montane forests and woodlands | evergreen, structurally simple forests and woodlands in cold climates dominated by needle-leaf conifers; may include a subdominant component of deciduous trees, especially in disturbed sites | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T2.2 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T2 | deciduous temperate forests | structurally simple, winter deciduous forests with high productivity in summer; winter dormancy, hibernation and migration are common life histories among plants and animals enabling cold avoidance | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T2.3 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T2 | oceanic cool temperate rainforests | broadleaf and needleleaf rainforests in cool temperate climates have evergreen or semi-deciduous tree canopies with high LAI and mostly nanophyll-microphyll foliage | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T2.4 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T2 | warm temperate laurophyll forests | relatively productive but structurally simple closed-canopy forests with high LAI occur in humid warm-temperate to subtropical climates | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T2.5 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T2 | temperate pyric humid forests | moist, multi-layered forests in wet-temperate climates with complex spatial structure and very high biomass | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T2.6 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T2 | temperate pyric sclerophyll forests and woodlands | forests and woodlands, typically 10–30-m tall with an open evergreen sclerophyllous tree canopy and low-moderate LAI grow in fire-prone temperate landscapes | |
| biome | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T3 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T | shrublands and shrubby woodlands biome | includes oligotrophic systems occurring on acidic, sandy soils that are often shallow or skeletal | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T3.1 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T3 | seasonally dry tropical shrublands | moderate-productivity, mostly evergreen shrublands, shrubby grasslands and low, open forests (generally <6-m tall) are limited by nutritional poverty and strong seasonal drought in the tropical winter months | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T3.2 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T3 | seasonally dry temperate heath and shrublands | Sclerophyllous, evergreen shrublands are distinctive ecosystems of humid and subhumid climates in mid-latitudes | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T3.3 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T3 | cool temperate heathlands | mixed graminoid shrublands restricted to cool-temperate maritime environments | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T3.4 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T3 | young rocky pavements, lava flows and screes | Vegetation dominated by cryptogams (lichens, bryophytes) develops on skeletal rocky substrates and may have scattered shrubs | |
| biome | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T4 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T | savannas and grasslands biome | closely linked to a mostly continuous ground layer of grasses that contribute moderate to very high levels of primary productivity driven by strongly seasonal water surplus and deficit cycles | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T4.1 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T4 | trophic savannas | grassy woodlands and grasslands are dominated by C4 grasses with stoloniferous, rhizomatous and tussock growth forms that are kept short by vertebrate grazers | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T4.2 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T4 | pyric tussock savannas | Grassy woodlands and grasslands are dominated by C4 tussock grasses, with some C3 grasses in the Americas and variable tree cover | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T4.3 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T4 | hummock savannas | open woodlands dominated by C4 hummock grasses (C3 and stoloniferous grasses are absent) with sclerophyllous trees and shrubs | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T4.4 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T4 | temperate woodlands | structurally simple woodlands are characterised by space between open tree crowns and a ground layer with tussock grasses, interstitial forbs, and a variable shrub component | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T4.5 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T4 | temperate subhumid grasslands | Structurally simple tussock grasslands with interstitial forbs occur in subhumid temperate climates | |
| biome | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T5 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T | deserts and semi-deserts biome | includes low to very low biomass ecosystems occurring in arid or semi-arid climates, principally associated with the subtropical high-pressure belts and major continental rain shadows | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T5.1 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T5 | semi-desert steppe | mixed semi-deserts are dominated by suffrutescent (i.e. with a woody base) or subsucculent (semi-fleshy) perennial shrubs and tussock grasses | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T5.2 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T5 | succulent or thorny deserts and semi-deserts | characterised by long-lived perennial plants, many with spines and/or succulent stem tissues or leaves | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T5.3 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T5 | sclerophyll hot deserts and semi-deserts | arid systems dominated by hard-leaved (sclerophyll) vegetation have relatively high diversity and local endemism, notably among plants, reptiles, and small mammals | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T5.4 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T5 | cool deserts and semi-deserts | arid systems where productivity is limited by both low precipitation and cold temperatures but varies spatially in response to soil texture, salinity, and water table depth | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T5.5 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T5 | hyper-arid deserts | hyper-arid deserts show extremely low productivity and biomass and are limited by low precipitation and extreme temperatures | |
| biome | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T6 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T | polar/alpine (cryogenic) biome | encompasses the extensive Arctic and Antarctic regions as well as high mountainous areas across all continental land masses | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T6.1 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T6 | ice sheets, glaciers and perennial snowfields | In these icy systems, extreme cold and periodic blizzards limit productivity and diversity to very low levels, and trophic networks are truncated | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T6.2 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T6 | polar/alpine cliffs, screes, outcrops and lava flows | Low biomass systems with very low productivity constrained by extreme cold, desiccating winds, skeletal substrates, periodic mass movement, and, in polar regions, by seasonally low light intensity | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T6.3 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T6 | polar tundra and deserts | low productivity autotrophic ecosystems are limited by winter dormancy during deep winter snow cover, extreme cold temperatures and frost during spring thaw, short growing seasons, desiccating winds, and seasonally low light intensity | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T6.4 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T6 | temperate alpine grasslands and shrublands | Mountain systems beyond the cold climatic treeline are dominated by grasses, herbs, or low shrubs (typically <1 m tall) | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T6.5 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T6 | tropical alpine grasslands and herbfields | Treeless mountain systems dominated by an open to dense cover of cold-tolerant C3 perennial tussock grasses, herbs, small shrubs, and distinctive arborescent rosette or cushion growth forms | |
| biome | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T7 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T | intensive land-use biome | includes major anthropogenic enterprises of cropping, pastoralism, plantation farming, and urbanisation; human intervention is a dominating influence on this biome | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T7.1 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T7 | annual croplands | High-productivity croplands are maintained by the intensive anthropogenic supplementation of nutrients, water, and artificial disturbance regimes (e.g. annual cultivation), translocation (e.g. sowing), and harvesting of annual plants | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T7.2 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T7 | sown pastures and fields | Structurally simple, high-productivity pastures maintained by the intensive anthropogenic supplementation of nutrients (more rarely water) and artificial disturbance regimes, translocation, and harvesting of animals or plants | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T7.3 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T7 | plantations | moderate to high productivity autotrophic systems are established by the translocation (i.e. planting or seeding) of woody perennial plants | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T7.4 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T7 | urban and industrial ecosystems | structurally complex and highly heterogeneous fine-scale spatial mosaics of diverse patch types that may be recognised in fine-scale land use classifications | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T7.5 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T7 | derived semi-natural pastures and old fields | Extensive ‘semi-natural’ grasslands and open shrublands exist where woody components of vegetation have been removed or greatly modified for agricultural land uses | |
| realm | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/S | subterranean realm | includes the earth’s crust and subsurface voids characterized by an absence or very low intensity of sunlight | ||
| biome | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/S1 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/S | subterranean lithic biome | includes non-aquatic lithic systems beneath the earth’s surface | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/S1.1 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/S1 | aerobic caves | Dark subterranean air-filled voids support simple, low productivity systems | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/S1.2 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/S1 | endolithic systems | Lithic matrices and their microscopic cracks and cavities host microbial communities | |
| biome | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/S2 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/S | anthropogenic subterranean voids biome | single functional group of ecosystems that owe their genesis to excavation by humans, including underground mines, transport tunnels, tombs, defence and energy installations, and other infrastructure | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/S2.1 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/S2 | anthropogenic subterranean voids | low-productivity systems in subterranean air-filled voids created by excavation | |
| transitional realm | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/MT | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T |
marine-terrestrial transitional realm | transitional marine-terrestrial realm | characterised by steep environmental gradients in desiccation, salinity and wave and tide disturbance, occupied by contrasting shoreline ecosystems |
| biome | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/MT1 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/MT | shorelines biome | comprises naturally formed, intertidal abiogenic habitats situated at the interface between land and sea | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/MT1.1 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/MT1 | rocky shorelines | Waves, tides and a gradient of exposure drive the structure and function of these productive intertidal ecosystems found mostly on high energy coasts | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/MT1.2 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/MT1 | muddy shorelines | Mudflats occur on low-energy coastlines. Mud and silt, often from nearby rivers, protect the burrowing organisms living in these ecosystems from common shoreline stressors | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/MT1.3 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/MT1 | sandy shorelines | Beaches, sand bars and spits are exposed to waves and tides on moderate-high energy coasts, and rely on drift seaweed and surf-zone phytoplankton for nutrients | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/MT1.4 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/MT1 | boulder and cobble shores | Cobbled and boulder shores are exposed to wave action and tides, and are periodically restructured by high-energy storm events | |
| biome | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/MT2 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/MT | supralittoral coastal biome | marks the landward extent of the transition from marine to terrestrial biomes | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/MT2.1 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/MT2 | coastal shrublands and grasslands | grasslands, shrublands, and low forests on coastlines above the high tide mark where they are exposed to harsh conditions of salt influx, desiccating winds and sunshine, and disturbances associated with storms or unstable substrates | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/MT2.2 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/MT2 | large seabird and pinniped colonies | relatively isolated islands and shores with large concentrations of roosting or nesting seabirds and semiaquatic mammals such as seals and walrus | |
| biome | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/MT3 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/MT | anthropogenic shorelines biome | distributed globally where urbanised and industrial areas adjoin the coast, and includes some more remote structures such as artificial islands | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/MT3.1 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/MT3 | artificial shorelines | constructed sea walls, breakwaters, piers, docks, tidal canals, islands and other coastal infrastructure create habitat for marine plants and animals around ports, harbours, and other intensively settled coastal areas | |
| transitional realm | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/SF | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/S https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F |
subterranean-freshwater transitional realm | transitional subterranean-freshwater realm | unique ecosystems where the subterranean realm meets the interface of freshwater and marine realms |
| biome | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/SF1 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/SF | subterranean freshwaters biome | includes streams, small lakes and aquifers beneath the earth’s surface and potentially has the largest volume of water of all the freshwater biomes | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/SF1.1 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/SF1 | underground streams and pools | Subterranean streams, pools, and aquatic voids (flooded caves) are low-productivity systems devoid of light | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/SF1.2 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/SF1 | groundwater ecosystems | low-productivity ecosystems found within or below groundwater zones; include aquifers and hyporheic zones beneath rivers and lakes | |
| biome | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/SF2 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/SF | anthropogenic subterranean freshwaters biome | includes aquatic systems in underground canals, drains, sewers, water pipes, and flooded mines constructed by humans; usually well connected to surface waters | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/SF2.1 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/SF2 | water pipes and subterranean canals | Constructed subterranean canals and water pipes are dark, low-productivity systems acting as conduits for water, nutrients, and biota between artificial or natural freshwater ecosystems | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/SF2.2 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/SF2 | flooded mines and other voids | Abandoned and now flooded underground mines frequently contain extensive reservoirs of geothermally warmed groundwater, colonized by stygobitic invertebrates from nearby natural subterranean habitats | |
| transitional realm | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/FM | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M |
freshwater-marine transitional realm | transitional freshwater-marine realm | occupied by brackish aquatic ecosystems on marine coasts; shares features of the freshwater and the marine realms, and transitions to brackish tidal systems |
| biome | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/FM1 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/FM | semi-confined transitional waters biome | includes coastal inlets that are influenced by inputs of both fresh and marine water from terrestrial catchments and ocean tides, waves, and currents | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/FM1.1 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/FM1 | deepwater coastal inlets | Deepwater coastal inlets (e.g. fjords, sea lochs) are semi-confined aquatic systems with many features of open oceans | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/FM1.2 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/FM1 | permanently open riverine estuaries and bays | mosaic systems characterised by high spatial and temporal variabilities in structure and function, which depend on coastal geomorphology, ratios of freshwater inflows to marine waters and tidal volume, and seasonality of climate | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/FM1.3 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/FM1 | intermittently closed and open lakes and lagoons | coastal water bodies that have high spatial and temporal variability in structure and function, which depends largely on the status of the lagoonal entrance (open or closed) | |
| transitional realm | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/MFT | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T |
marine-freshwater-terrestrial transitional realm | transitional marine-freshwater-terrestrial realm | the interface of marine and terrestrial seepage is sometimes influenced by seepage or outflow of freshwater, supporting intertidal wetlands and deltaic systems |
| biome | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/MFT1 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/MFT | brackish tidal biome | associated with prograding depositional shorelines at the interface of terrestrial, freshwater, and marine realms | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/MFT1.1 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/MFT1 | coastal river deltas | prograding depositional systems, shaped by freshwater flows and influenced by wave and tidal flow regimes and substrate composition | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/MFT1.2 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/MFT1 | intertidal forests and shrublands | Mangroves are structural engineers and possess traits including pneumatophores, salt excretion glands, vivipary, and propagule buoyancy that promote survival and recruitment in poorly aerated, saline, mobile, and tidally inundated substrates | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/MFT1.3 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/MFT1 | coastal saltmarshes and reedbeds | vegetated by salt-tolerant forbs, grasses, and shrubs, with fine-scale mosaics related to strong local hydrological and salinity gradients, as well as competition and facilitation | |
| transitional realm | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/SM | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/S https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/M |
subterranean-marine transitional realm | transitional subterranean-marine realm | unique ecosystems also occur where the subterranean realm meets the interface of freshwater and marine realms |
| biome | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/SM1 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/SM | subterranean tidal biome | includes coastal pools and subterranean voids with a partially or entirely submerged connection to marine waters | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/SM1.1 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/SM1 | anchialine caves | Anchialine caves contain bodies of saline or brackish waters with subterranean connections to the sea | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/SM1.2 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/SM1 | anchialine pools | tidally influenced bodies of brackish water with subterranean connections to the sea and groundwater, but with significant or full exposure to open air and sunlight | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/SM1.3 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/SM1 | sea caves | marine caves littoral caves |
Sea caves are usually formed by wave action abrasion in various rock types |
| transitional realm | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/TF | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/T https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/F |
terrestrial-freshwater transitional realm | transitional terrestrial-freshwater realm | interface between terrestrial and freshwater realms, occupied by palustrine wetlands, some of which accumulate peat under impeded substrate drainage |
| biome | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/TF1 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/TF | palustrine wetlands biome | includes vegetated floodplains, groundwater seeps, and mires with permanent or intermittent surface water | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/TF1.1 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/TF1 | tropical flooded forests and peat forests | Closed-canopy forests in tropical swamps and riparian zones have high biomass and LAI, with unseasonal growth and reproductive phenology | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/TF1.2 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/TF1 | subtropical/temperate forested wetlands | hydrophilic forests with thickets that have an open to closed tree or shrub canopy, 2–40 m tall, dependent on flood regimes or groundwater lenses | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/TF1.3 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/TF1 | permanent marshes | shallow, permanently inundated freshwater wetlands lacking woody vegetation, dominated instead by emergent macrophytes growing in extensive, often monospecific groves of rhizomatous grasses, sedges, rushes, or reeds | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/TF1.4 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/TF1 | seasonal floodplain marshes | high-productivity floodplain wetlands fed regularly by large inputs of allochthonous resources that drive strong bottom-up regulation, and smaller areas of disconnected oligotrophic wetlands | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/TF1.5 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/TF1 | episodic arid floodplains | Highly episodic freshwater floodplains are distinct from, but associated with, adjacent river channels, which provide water and sediment during flooding | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/TF1.6 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/TF1 | boreal, temperate and montane peat bogs | patterned peatlands account for up to 40% of global soil carbon are dominated by a dense cover (high LAI) of hydrophytic mosses, graminoids, and shrubs, sometimes with scattered trees | |
| functional group | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/TF1.7 | https://global-ecosystems.org/explore/realms/TF1 | boreal and temperate fens | peatland ecosystems dominated by hydrophytic grasses, sedges, or forbs |